Slur & Phrase ::  In lesson 4 we discussed the way in which beats can vary in strength and how, through a suitable choice of time signature, the composer can make clear the rhythmic structure, formed by a particular pattern of strong, medium and weak
beats. On many musical instruments there are limits to the strength of
a beat, if all one can do is to blow, bang or scrape more or less
enthusiastically. Wind-instruments blown hard play sharp and the tone
is coarsened. The same instruments blown too gently will tend to play
flat or not at all. However, a performance in which all the notes are
equally loud or soft is immeasurably duller than one where there is
dynamic variety. The dynamic detail can be in the note's strength
when it starts, whether or not it is preceded or followed by a silence,
the note's length and the mean strength of the note while it sounds.
All these can be determined with suitable notation and we will look at
each of these in turn. Music, like written prose, tends to be
made up of short sequences we call phrases. Consider Swift's 'A
satirical Elegy on the Death of a late Famous General' (1772) -
actually, on the death of Marlborough, the victor at Blenheim - in
which each line is a single phrase. But what of what, his friends may say, He had those honours in his day, True to his profit and his pride, He made them weep before he dy'd. Each
line expresses a single idea which is the fundamental characteristic of
a phrase. Of course, the choice of phrase length is not 'set in stone'.
One might 'feel' that a more natural phrase length here is the pairing
of lines (1 with 2, 3 with 4). This freedom to feel poetry in various
different ways occurs too in music and phrasing is a matter best left
to the performer to communicate to the listener as he (or she) thinks
best. We will return to this point when discussing the setting of words
to music where the phrasing of the words tends to find its mirror in
the shaping of the musical line. The desire of editors and
composers to make their intentions clear down to the very last detail
has meant that phrasing is shown through the use of large sweeping
'slur-like' lines called 'phrase marks'. Slurs, which tend to embrace a
smaller number of notes, help to shape the musical line even within
broader phrasing marks and performers must be able to distinguish
between them. On wind instruments, all the notes under the slur except
for the first, are untongued, the breath flowing continuously while the
fingers move. On stringed instruments, the equivalent effect is
achieved by using a single sweep of the bow for each slur or phrase. On
keyboard instruments the notes are played legato (smoothly) and with a
light touch. The slur removes the attack from the start of each
note under it except for the first so providing a contrast in strength,
a dynamic variety, between the first and the later notes. If slurring
is to be effective, or indeed a distinction made between different
phrases, the performer must avoid playing unslurred notes too smoothly.
Pre-nineteenth century music was played in a more detached manner than
we associate, say, with the repertoire of the late-Romantic. The
advantages of a detached manner when playing in a large acoustically
resonant building become clear. When the notes 'ring on' around the
room, the harmonies overlap instead of flowing neatly one into the
other. Slurring, in such surroundings, would obsure the line, and so
the performer has to be able to adjust the performance to the demands
made by the surroundings by ignoring slur and phrase marks that may
have become redundant.  Slurs are distinguishable from ties, which we met in lesson 2,
because ties only link together notes of identical pitch (e.g. B to B)
while slurs never link together notes of identical pitch.
Tenuto & Staccato ::  The
idea that music can be 'smoothed out' using slurs can be reduced to
just a single note, which if normally played in a detached manner,
would now need to be held for its full written value. This mark, a
small horizontal line over or below the note head, is called a tenuto
mark. If the use of tenuto is extended the composer may place the word
tenuto in the score rather than pedantically marking every note. The
reverse, i.e. the shortening of a note by replacing part of its time
value with a period of silence, is called staccato, a sign introduced
into music in the late eighteenth century. This is marked with a small
dot (for staccato) or a horizontal line and dot (for mezzo staccato),
or a single 'quotation mark' or 'wedge' (for staccatissimo). Staccato
means no more than sustaining the note, so marked, for only half its
written length, replacing the other half with a period of silence. Some
players mistakenly strengthen the shorter note in the belief that
staccato is used to make a note rhythmically 'stronger' when it is
actually used to make it 'weaker'. Mezzo staccato means hold the note
for three quarters of its time value, while staccatissimo means hold
the note for one quarter of its time value. We give a number of examples below.
Slurs & Staccato ::  When
used under a slur, the staccato mark will have a slightly modified
effect depending on the 'weight' of the note within the slur were it to
have no staccato mark. If a note is slurred in pairs, the effect is to
sustain the first but slightly lift the second. The staccato mark,
therefore, on either or both, must be seen to modify this relationship
under the slur, so that if both carry staccato marks, the first note
remains slightly longer than the second but the notes are now slightly
detached from each other, the slur is therefore 'broken'.
The way a staccato mark under a slur is realised will also depend on
the instrument for which the instruction refers. On a piano the
staccato under a slur is a portato
where the individual notes sound for three-quarters of their written
duration. On a string instrument the staccato mark under a slur means
detach the notes on a single stroke of the bow whether upstroke or
downstroke. The bow does not change direction for the duration of the
slur.
If the music is from the baroque period and the piece is slow
and in a French style where you might expected to play the shortest
notes, say the quavers, inégal
then if some quavers have staccato marks over them and a slur above the
staccato marks then those quavers are to be played evenly, i.e. égal. See lesson 20 for more information about égal and inégal.
Variety of Accents ::  An accent serves various purposes; as - a stress or special emphasis on a beat to mark its position in the bar;
- a
mark in the written music indicating an accent of which there are five
basic types: staccato accents, staccatissimo accents, normal accents,
strong accents, and legato accents with several combinations possible;
- the principle of regularly recurring stresses which serve to give rhythm to the music.
Percussive Accents (1-4) | Pressure Accent (5) | | | | | | Staccato | Staccatissimo | Strong Accent Marcato | Normal Accent | Legato Accent Tenuto | Light Accents | Strong Accent | Medium Accents |
Accent Name | Description | Staccato Accent | short and separated from the following note | Staccatissimo Accent | an exaggerated short duration of the note | Strong Accent | generally meant for attacks at loud dynamic levels of forte or louder | Normal Accent | moderately sharp attack that can be used at any dynamic level from pianissimo to fortissimo | Legato Accent | this
can be used at any dynamic level and is a slight stress without a
noticable attack and held to the full duration of the note |
Combined Accents (1-8) |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | Strong & Staccato | Strong & Legato | Strong & Staccatissimo | Legato & Staccato | Legato & Staccatissimo | Normal & Staccato | Normal & Legato | Normal & Staccatissimo | Strong Accents | Medium Accents |
Accent Name | Description | Strong & Staccato Accents | very percussive and shorter duration than notated | Strong & Legato Accents | very percussive while retaining full duration of notation | Strong & Staccatissimo Accents | strongest percussive attack possible with an exaggerated short duration | Legato & Staccato Accents | stressed and moderately short, separated from next note | Legato and Staccatissimo | stressed and quite short | Normal & Staccato Accents | moderately percussive and short | Normal & Legato Accents | moderately percussive with full note duration | Normal & Staccatissimo Accents | moderately percussive with short note duration |
Articulation on Wind Instruments ::
We summarise below information about articulation and accent as applied to wind instruments.
Woodwind articulation |
Legato | usually marked by a slur, the first note only
will be tongued and the remainder of the phrase in play under a
continuous stream of breath |
Soft or tongued legato | every note is lightly tongued, with a softer syllable (du instead of tu) |
Staccato | notes played half their written length, every note started and stopped by the tongue |
Double tonguing | fast alternating syllables, usually tu and ku |
Triple tonguing | like double tonguing but alternating tu, ku and tu |
Flutter tongue | a vibration of the tongue, as if rolling the syllable rrrr |
Articulation on Stringed Instruments ::  We summarise below information about articulation and accent as applied to stringed instruments. String players will apply bowing marks to indicate where the bow is to move up or down. The "up-bow" mark looks like a V and the "down-bow" mark like a square missing its bottom side. The
modern bow-hold has the bow held between the tips of the fingers and
thumb with the palm of the hand facing down towards the floor. "Up"
means start at the tip. "Down" means start at the frog which is where
your right hand is. On most modern stringed instruments the "down-bow"
is stronger than the "up-bow", this due mainly to the greater weight or
downward force the player can apply with the bow to the string with the
heel (near the frog) as opposed to the tip. However, on the viol,
where the bow is held differently, effectively lying in the palm of the
hand with the palm facing upwards, the "up-bow" is stronger than the
"down-bow" and the bow action will be reversed. The freedom to
bow without a change in direction, for example on long sustained notes,
is more limited on the cello and double-bass than on the violin or
viola because cello and double-bass bows are shorter. Where many notes
are played under a single bow stroke, the player will mark the part
with a slur. Because the "up" and "down" strokes have different
strengths, it is natural to want to use the stronger stroke for strong
beats and the weaker stroke for weaker beats. On modern stringed
instruments, the performer naturally plays an upbeat with an "up-bow"
unless indicated otherwise. On the viol, the same upbeat would be
played with a "down-bow". String players use a number of bowing terms which we list below. Bowing Terms | Description | On-the-string Bowings | Détaché | separate bows for each note. This type of bowing is used when there are no slur markings over the notes | Legato | player plays smoothly according to bowings indicated by the slur marks | Martelé (Fr.); Martellato (It.); Marcato (It.) | notes
are played with accented force, literally “hammered”. It indicates a
fast, well-articulated, heavy, separate stroke, resembling a sforzando,
or pressed accent. The indication for this may be dots, accents,
arrowhead accents, or marks | Louré (or Portato, piqué) | bow
motion is legato, but with slight separation of the notes. It is
performed with several notes in one bow direction, each note receiving
a gentle “push” to separate it | Staccato (each note is separated) | 1. separate bow - notes are played separated and with separate bows for each note 2. slurred - consecutive notes are played separated, but with one bow direction | Off-the-string Bowings | Spiccato (or saltando) | 1. deliberate - usually in slow passages, player bounces the bow in a deliberate manner to give an interesting effect 2.
spontaneous - (sautillé). The speed of the passage causes the player to
instinctively create a bouncing motion with the bow. Sometimes
described as “an uncontrolled spiccato” 3. slurred spiccato
(staccato volante, flying staccato) - similar to slurred staccato
except that the bow bounces on the string to create the separation of
the pitches. Instead of reversing direction for each note as in
ordinary spiccato, the bow picks up a series of short notes, usually on
an up-bow | Jeté (ricochet) | the
bouncing motion of the bow creates 2 to 6 or even more rapid notes.
This is usually with a downward bow motion, but up-bows are
occasionally used as well. The cello and double bass can only execute
about 3 consecutive notes, maybe 4, because of the shorter bow that is
used. |
Dot & Wedge in Clavichord Music ::  Paul Simmonds,
the English clavichordist, wrote to the Clavichord Discussion List
about the use of the 'dot' and the 'wedge' in clavichord playing:
"D.G. Türk's 'Clavierschule' is a good source for clear explanations.
He sometimes takes CPE to task for being unclear. There is an English
translation by Raymond Haggh, University of Nebraska Press, 1982, which
I fear is out of print, but libraries should have it, or you may be
able to get a second hand copy. A facsimile is available from
Bärenreiter if your German is up to it. Briefly, Türk says that
there is little difference between the dot and the wedge, except that
'some would like to indicate by the stroke that a shorter staccato be
played than that indicated by the dot'. Türk says that an accentis not
implied by this, but that one hears all detached notes played loudlyby
some players. I still wonder about Müthel's use of the wedge, as he
often uses it on the first note of a slurred group (if anyone has any
thoughts on this I would like to hear them - maybe Müthel did imply an
accent with his use of the wedge). E.W. Wolf (1785) is also a
good source for information on détaché, agreeing by and large with Türk
(English translation by Christopher Hogwood in CPEBach Studies, ed.
Stephen Clark, Clarenden Press 1988). Wolf also makes no distinction
between the dot and the dash and describes in detail how and where the
détaché should be performed. This source is in general an excellent
short guide to 18th century clavichord playing. American colleagues
could take a look at the original in the Library of Congress. Marpurg
also gives either the dot or wedge for staccato (Abstossen) making no
apparent distinction between the two."
Pedalling on the Piano ::  C.P.E. Bach commented that if his lessons published in his Versuch über die wahre Art das Clavier zu spielen (Berlin, 1753) were to be played on a harpsichord with more than one keyboard, "one keeps to one manual for such changes of forte and piano as occur on single notes; one changes manual only when entire passages are differentiated by forte and piano.
The discomfort is not present at the clavichord; on that instrument one
can express all sorts of forte and piano as clearly and purely as on
just about any other instrument." The problem of fixed dynamics
on the harpsichord, the principal domestic keyboard instrument, became
even greater as the idea of dynamic expression or Affekt in
music became increasingly important in music of the late baroque. For
some early keyboard makers, the solution lay in changing the material
of the plectrum, that part of the harpsichord directly in contact with
the string. M. Trouflaut writing in 1773 describes Pascal Taskin's invention, the peau de buffle. "A
thousand means of enlarging, embellishing and improving harpsochords
were thought up, but no one reached the goal towards which they could
have striven, namely, to vary the tone as nature and taste suggest to
those of a delicate ear and a sensitive hearing ... Through his insight, M. Paschal Taskin surmounted the difficulties which had stood in the way of his predecessors ... Of the three rows of jacks in a harpsichord he chose one in which he used pieces of buffalo leather as plectra ... The
effect of the leather on the strings of the instrument was to create
sensuous, velvety sounds. These one could vary at will by exerting more
or less pressure at the keyboard, obtaining rich, full and soothing
sounds .... Does one require passionate, tender or dying sounds? The buffle obeys the pressure of the finger; it no longer plucks but caresses the string. The touch, just the touch of the clavecinist is enough to create these charming shadings without changing either keyboard or stop ... I dare to add with confidence that the harpsichord with the peau de buffle is very much superior to the Piano-forte." The Piano-forte
moved on, picking up ideas from other instruments on the way. Two
German makers, Franz Jakob Späth (died 1752) and his son-in-law
Christoph Friedrich Schmahl (1739-1814), made an instrument called the Tangentenflügel
in which small staves of wood, moving vertically like a harpsichord
jack, struck rather than plucked the strings. By striking the keys more
forcefully, the volume of sound produced could be increased so the
instrument had some dynamic possibilities. Later pairs replaced
individual strings and a pedal mechanism allowed the player to vary the
volume by changing whether the staves struck one or both of the
strings. Other pedals raised dampers, to let the sound ring on even
after the key had been released by the player, or were used to
reproduce the 'harp' effect found on harpsichords when extra damping is
given to the strings to produce a pizzicato. These then
were the early uses to which keyboard makers put pedals in order to
increase the dynamic and tonal capabilites of their instruments. We
know that Mozart thought highly of Späth's Tangentenflügel before he became acquainted with the Piano forte
of Johann Andreas Stein (1728-92), one of the finest maker of organs,
harpsichords, clavichords and pianos of the 18th century. Stein's
instruments incorporated levers operated by the player's knee rather
than by the player's feet. Stein's daughter Nannete, and her husband
Andreas Streicher, established one of the most important Viennese
piano-making firms. It was the Streicher's personal friendship with
Beethoven that encouraged Beethoven to use the Streicher instruments
even after he came into contact with instruments made by Erard, one
made for Haydn in 1801 and the second given to Beethoven himself in
August 1803. By this time all pianos were fitted with foot operated
pedals and the knee lever had passed into history.  | Grand Piano (1796) | more information... Museum of Fine Arts, Boston Piano designed by John Broadwood and Son, English, active 1795-1808 Cameos and medallions designed by Josiah Wedgwood (1730-1795) Case decoration by Thomas Sheraton (1751-1806) Veneered case of satinwood, tulipwood, and purpleheart with Wedgwood cameos and medallions Piano: 97 7/8 x 43 7/8 x 35 7/8 in. (248.7 x 111.5 x 91.2 cm) Detail of lilac Wedgwood medallion: c. 3 in. across (7.6 cm) George Alfred Cluett Collection, given by Florence Cluett Chambers Acquired in 1985 |
The article below is taken from The Pedal and Pedalling on the Modern Piano and from a number of other resources about pedalling on the piano. Upon
inspection, the modern concert grand piano will confront you with three
piston-like contraptions that extend downwards from the main body of
the instrument. Don’t panic. Contrary to the misguided
belief of many a first-time observer, the correct operation of these
‘pedals’ does not involve the synchronized use of three limbs. The
simultaneous operation of a clutch, brake, and accelerator would
probably cause just as much damage. So What Do They Do? Quite simply, a piano pedal is a lever capable of a short ‘down-up’ movement and is operated by the foot.1
Each of the three pedals has a different function. The right-most, when
depressed, moves a damping mechanism away from the strings inside the
piano, thus allowing any notes played to have their full duration even
though the finger(s) have been removed from the keys. For this reason
it is known as the sustain pedal but, as the most important and
frequently used of the three, is more simply referred to as....the
pedal. A (Thankfully) Brief History of the Pedal It was introduced by the Englishman John Broadwood (of Broadwood Pianos fame) in 1784. Before
John came along however, the position of the damping mechanism was
regulated by a device placed directly under the keyboard. Naturally,
the use of this particular pedalling facility was somewhat restrictive,
as it could only be operated by the player’s knee - altogether a
marketing ploy aimed at either child prodigies such as Mozart, or
midgets. Once repositioned though, the pedal became all the rage.
Mozart was the first composer to use the odd pedal marking here and
there, but it was in fact Beethoven who, through meticulous indications
in his piano works, considered the effect of the pedal to be an
integral part of his sound world. The composers of the subsequent
‘Romantic’ era followed his train of thought, using the pedal
imaginatively in order to expand the piano’s tonal palette. Some even
paused to leave meaningful quotations for the sake of posterity, as did
Anton Rubinstein when he romanticized about the pedal being ‘the soul
of the piano’. Busoni waxed lyrical about ‘the moonlight streaming down
a landscape’. The great Franz Liszt even said that, without the pedal,
the piano would be some kind of hackbrett. (What?!) 2 The
piano music of Debussy and Ravel would be unimaginable without the use
of the pedal, as it allowed them to translate into musical terms the
aesthetics of their painter-counterparts: the Impressionists. The
importance of the sustain pedal to the exploration of the resonances
and sonorities of the piano has remained so ever since.3 At
about the same time as Debussy and Ravel’s creative use of the sustain
pedal, Ragtime pianists in New Orleans were finding it handy for
holding on to an ‘oom’ while they got to a ‘pah’. OK, So How Does It Help?
The late Hungarian-born pianist Louis Kentner believed that proper use
of the sustain pedal constitutes about half of what we call ‘good tone’
on the piano. A pianist with a ‘good tone’, in other words, is able to
produce a pleasing sound with the instrument. What he/she does with
their right foot is just as important as what they do with their hands
the individual ways of using the sustain pedal differ so greatly from
artist to artist even if they may share the same level of pianistic
skill, or indeed even the same piano! So Why Is This?
In a word: timing. One can employ the sustain pedal in three different
ways in relation to how one produces a sound on the keyboard. The pedal
may be used: Before the sound (known as anticipated pedalling)Simultaneously with the sound; orAfter the sound. (known as syncopated pedalling)Timing plays an especially crucial role4
when this type of pedalling is to help produce piano-playing of good
clarity, and it is the vital time-lapse between key-depression and
pedal-depression throughout a simple sequence of chords which controls
this clarity. Get it wrong, and the sounds of one chord will ooze
inevitably into the next, creating the musical equivalent of a
water-logged fruit trifle. What About The Other Two?
A long time ago, certain over-zealous American piano makers appalled
discerning music lovers by enriching their pianos with pedals that
operated attached cymbals, drums and rude-sounding wind machines.
Mercifully, history saw to it that these contraptions fell bumpily by
the wayside. The only additional pedals that have remained until today
are the una corda and sostenuto pedals. The Una Corda Pedal It
is probably worth mentioning at this point that not all pianos have
three pedals. The majority of grand pianos possess indeed all three,
but others (including the small ‘upright’ pianos) offer two pedals
which will be the sustain and una corda types. The latter, and
left-most, controls a mechanism which works in two different ways
depending on the type of piano. In grand pianos, the depression of this
pedal will move the whole set of ‘hammers’ (the small mallet-like
things wrapped up in felt) very slightly sideways so as to leave
unstruck one out of every three strings for each note, hence the name una corda, Italian for ‘one string’.5 On
upright pianos, the whole set of hammers is moved closer to the strings
so that the force of their blow is diminished. The resulting sound in
both cases, upon depression of a key, is a somewhat muted sound and
consequently this pedal also bears the name: the soft pedal. And Finally the Doohickey in the Middle Back
to grand pianos. Located in between the soft and sustain pedals is a
handy little gadget that can offer hours of amusement (well, alright,
maybe only a few minutes until you figure out what it does.).
Introduced by Steinway and perfected in 1874, it is known as the
sostenuto pedal and enables the pianist to make (within limits) a
selection as to the notes he/she wishes to sustain. In order to ensure
success, it can only be depressed after the keys themselves have been
depressed. The process is as follows: Choose a note or chord that you want to sustainPlay itWhile the key(s) is/are depressed, press down on the sostenuto pedal with your left footLet go of the note(s)See how they still sound! but....that’s not all.While these notes still sound you can play any other notes on the piano, and they WILL NOT sustain.OK Then, Does It Have A Useful Purpose?
Well, I’m told that the sostenuto pedal is absolutely vital for
accompanying vocalists in the Flenderyap Songs of the Brumtypipe People
by the late Grong composer Hulkan M.Ruden Voos III. Apart from that,
certain solo piano compositions by contemporary earth composers require
the occasional dab of third pedal.... What’s With These Confusing Names? Misnomers
abound when discussing the piano and its pedals. For starters, the
sustain pedal also bears the confusing name of loud pedal, even though
it is also used for soft passages. If we’re going to be really
pedantic, the use of the term ‘sustain’ is also dubious the undamped
vibration of a string is, in reality, it’s natural state, and since the
sustain pedal curtails the length of this natural state (i.e.
shortening the tone instead of lengthening it), it’s actually doing the
absolute opposite of sustaining anything. (I sense I may have just lost
you?) Perhaps it should simply and more universally be known as the
damper pedal? The una corda or 'one string' pedal doesn’t,
in actual fact, make each hammer strike only one string out of three
more precisely, it makes every hammer AVOID a string, each one striking
the remaining two strings out of three.? And finally, regarding the middle pedal (just to make you wish you’d never visited this entry): sostenuto is Italian for ‘sustain’. The Right Way To Do It Just so that your pedal technique is au fait:
Keep your heel on the ground when using the pedal, and move it with the
tip of you toe so that your whole foot acts as a pivot, so to speak.
This is essential for good control, and to being able to vary the depth
to which the pedal is depressed, an aspect that also has influence upon
the clarity of sound produced. The Wrong Way To Do It Don’t kick it. Don’t use it to beat time. Don’t use it for ragtime foot-stomping (get a fiddle-player to stomp for you). The Squeaky Pedal There
is nothing quite as infuriating as a noisy pedal, or worse: one that,
just like a lonely mouse, squeaks whenever depressed (pardon the pun).
Usual form is to administer a little lubricant directly, or call a
piano technician. All the mouse will need is a little love and
attention. Notes 1 | foot-operated levers also exist on kettledrums, pipe organs, harpsichords, harps, and sewing machines of the prehistoric era. | 2 | German for ‘chopping board’ - [comment by Dr. Blood: actually Hackbrett is the German name for the hammered dulcimer] | 3 | A
bit of acoustics jargon here: The harmonics of the strings sounded are
enriched by the sympathetic resonance of those derived from other
freely vibrating strings, resulting in a fuller sound, or what most
simply describe as a ‘glow’ to the tone of the instrument. This is of
course an exclusively acoustical phenomenon - if you’ve ever wondered
why the ‘piano’ sound on a synthesizer doesn’t sound like the real
McCoy, this is the reason. | 4 | specially
especially crucial in concert halls when there is a high ‘reverberation
component’ (a little more technical fodder for you ‘acoustics aficionados’ out there) | 5 | the
modern piano has one string for a few of the lowest notes, two for the
middle register notes, and three strings for the highest notes, on
account of the decrease in resonance of the shorter strings. |
|
The Pedal in Practice Although
it was Beethoven who first made significant use of the pedal in
performance and in his piano compositions, it was pieces like the piano
nocturne or "night piece", a form inherited from the Irish composer
John Field (1782-1837) and to which Frédéric Chopin (1810-1849) brought
the melodic inspiration he drew from Italian opera (particularly
Bellini) and his own unique harmonic idiom, where the possibilities
provided by the pedal were to be fully explored. The graceful melody of
the D-flat major Nocturne Op. 27, no. 2, 1835, stated three times
enhanced by thirds, sixths, fioriaturas (written embellishments) and
intense chromaticism, uses surprising harmonic changes to add to the
passionate climax; the subtle pedalling effects of the coda point
towards the pianistic colours of Debussy. The art of pedalling was something Debussy felt strongly about as Eberhardt Klemm mentions in Claude Debussy - Piano Works, Vol. 5: Études : Concluding Remarks "Debussy's
piano style of composition demands a cessation of damping spreading
over bars, i.e. a depressing of the right pedal (sometimes indicated by
several suspended short ties.) This does not mean that the sounds
should be blurred. Thus Debussy warns against misuse of the pedal
"which is mostly a means of covering up a technical deficiency." He
does of course demand a finely differentiated pedal technique of the
greatest virtuosity. Many a skilful pianist, who finds a hand free,
will in some places silently depress keys and change pedals briefly in
order thereby to exclude the continued vibration of disturbing tones.
"The art of pedalling is a kind of breathing", wrote Debussy to Jacques
Durand (1st September 1915). "This is what I observed in the case of
Liszt when he permitted me to listen to him during his stay in Rome." In exceptional cases Debussy prescribes the use of the left pedal (Fr. pédale douce, pédale sourde or sourdine) or even of both pedals (les 2 Ped., les deux pédales). The fascination of the shift of keyboard and mechanics, which occurs in all degrees of volume (thus also in forte)
in Debussy and still more in Ravel, consists in the alteration of the
tonal colour. We do not, however, need to follow these instructions, if
the shift occasions a too meagre and dull-sounding effect, as is the
case with some older pianos. " John Tilbury discussing the piano
music of Cornelius Cardew remarks that the pedal is being used to
modulate piano tone. The precise aspects of sonority and resonance are
sometimes indicated - in February Pieces, for example, where subtle
modifications in the timbral quality of sustained sounds are introduced
as they decay, the harmonics being altered after the initial attack
through use of pedalling and of silently depressed keys. This goes
straight to the heart of the characteristic resonance of the piano and
the way it is actually heard and the role the pedal plays in the
instrument's tonal and timbral response. The Digital Piano and Pedalling Dr. Virginia Houser, Kansas State University, in her article entitled Do you want an elementary student to have a digital keyboard for home practice?
admits that digital keyboards have come a long, long way in recent
years. Their sounds are amazingly close to that of a piano; after all,
many use actual sound samples from acoustic grand pianos. They stay in
tune. They are portable. They generally cost less than a piano. The
most expensive ones offer touch-sensitive (also called
velocity-sensitive) and weighted wooden keys quite similar to an
acoustic piano. Digital pianos have one to three pedals which simulate
those on an acoustic. They can also be equipped with headphones which
allow private practice. Most even offer instrumental sounds and
percussion effects which titillate many students. Even with all the
digital pluses, however, she prefer a student's primary practice
instrument be a piano. Because of all those marvelous inner mechanical
workings, the performer must engage with the instrument to create sound
and effects in a way not possible on a digital instrument. There is
also an unreproducible, resonant amplification resulting from vibrating
strings and wood. Last but not least, subtleties in pedalling are all
but impossible with an electronic instrument."
Table of Dynamic Markings ::  We
set out below signs and marks that set or change the dynamic level
during a piece of music. In some case, the dynamic level is related to
the mood; in other cases the mark is much more direct. Table of More Common Dynamic Markings please refer to our music dictionary for other markings | ff. | fortissimo : very loud | f. | forte : loud | mf. | mezzo forte : moderately loud | mp. | mezzo piano : moderately soft | p. | piano : soft | pp. | pianissimo : very soft | also ffff., fff., ppp., pppp. | for greater dynamic range | fp. | forte immediately dropping to piano | crescendo, cresc. | increasingly powerful | decrescendo, decresc. | decreasingly powerful | diminuendo. dim. | decreasingly powerful |
 | narrow to wide: crescendo |
 | wide to narrow: diminuendo or decrescendo |
marcato, marc. | marked or emphasised | sf., sfz. | sforzato, sforzando : forced | sfp. | sforzato or sforzando immediately dropping to piano | fz. | forza, forzando : forced, sudden accent |
rfz. | rinforzando : reinforcing |
calando | decreasing tone and speed | incalzando | increasing speed and tone | con sordino (sordini) | with the mute(s) | dolcissimo, dolciss. | very gently, very sweetly | leggiero | light, delicate |
pacato | calm, quiet |
mancando, morendo, perdendosi, smorzando | waning, dying away | martellato | hammered out | mezza voce, sotto voce | in an undertone | risvegliato | with increased animation | senza sordini | without mutes | strepitoso | noisy, boisterous | tacet | it is silent | tutta forza | as loud as possible | una corda | use the soft pedal on the piano |
Table of General Musical Markings ::  We set out below a list of general musical markings that are commonly found in published music. Table of General Musical Markings some may be included in tables elsewhere in the Online music theory or in our music dictionary | Italian | a | (Italian) for, at, in, etc. | a cappella | (Italian) for choral music without accompaniment | a capriccio | (Italian) in a humorous manner | accelerando (accel.) | (Italian) gradually getting faster | ad libitum | (Italian) as the performer wishes | affettuoso | (Italian) affectionate, with tender warmth | agitato | (Italian) agitated, excited | alla | (Italian) in the style of | alla breve | (Italian) the half note (minim) rather than the quarter note (crotchet) takes the beat | allargando | (Italian) growing broader | amabile | (Italian) sweet, amiable, lovable | amoroso | (Italian) loving | ancora | (Italian) again | animato | (Italian) with spirit | a piacere | (Italian) at the performer's discretion | appassionato | (Italian) impassioned | arioso | (Italian) a short solo in the style of an air | arpeggio | (Italian) the notes of a chord are played in succession rather than simultaneously | assai | (Italian) very | ben, bene | (Italian) well | brillante | (Italian) with brilliance or vivacity | cadenza | (Italian) a passage for solo instrument in free, improvisatory style | calando | (Italian) diminishing in dynamic and speed | cambiare | (Italian) to change | cantabile | (Italian) in a singing style | chiuso | (Italian) stopped, in horn playing | col, colla | (Italian) with the | come | (Italian) like, as | comodo | (Italian) comfortable, easy | con | (Italian) with | con brio | (Italian) with brilliance or vivacity | con dolore | (Italian) with sorrow | con forza | (Italian) with force or strength | con fuoco | (Italian) with fire | con giusto | (Italian) with taste, fitting mood and tempo | con passione | (Italian) with passion | con spirito | (Italian) with spirit | coro | (Italian) chorus | crescendo | (Italian) gradually get louder | dal | (Italian) from the | decrescendo | (Italian) gradually get softer | decisivo | (Italian) with decision | delicato | (Italian) delicately | diminuendo | (Italian) gradually get softer | dolce | (Italian) sweetly | dolente | (Italian) doleful, sorrowful | doppio movimento | (Italian) double the preceeding speed | e, ed | (Italian) and | e poi | (Italian) and then | espressivo | (Italian) expressive | facilmente | (Italian) easily, without strain | feroce | (Italian) ferocious | fine | (Italian) end, close | furioso | (Italian) furiously | giocoso | (Italian) gay, playful | grandioso | (Italian) grandly | grazioso | (Italian) graceful | il, la | (Italian) the | impetuoso | (Italian) in an energetic manner | lacrimoso | (Italian) tearfully | lamentoso | (Italian) in a mournful style | largamente | (Italian) in a dignified manner | legato | (Italian) smoothly | leggiero | (Italian) light and graceful | lusingando | (Italian) alluring, flattering | ma | (Italian) but | maestoso | (Italian) majestically | mancando | (Italian) dying away | marcato | (Italian) emphasized | martellato | (Italian) hammered stroke played with very short bows at the point | marziale | (Italian) march-like | meno | (Italian) less | meno mosso | (Italian) less movement, slower | mesto | (Italian) mournful, sad | mezzo | (Italian) half | misterioso | (Italian) mysteriously | molto | (Italian) much, very | morendo | (Italian) dying away and becoming slower | nobilmente | (Italian) nobly | non | (Italian) not | ossia | (Italian) or | parlando | (Italian) singing in speaking style | parlante | (Italian) singing in speaking style | pateticamente | (Italian) pathetically | perdendosi | (Italian) dying away and becoming slower | pesante | (Italian) heavy, weighting | piacevole | (Italian) agreeable | piangevole | (Italian) plaintively | piu | (Italian) more | pizzicato | (Italian) pluck the string with the finger | placidamente | (Italian) peacefully | pochetto | (Italian) very little | poco | (Italian) little, a little | poco a poco | (Italian) little by little | poi | (Italian) then | pomposo | (Italian) pompous | quasi | (Italian) almost | rallentando (rall.) | (Italian) gradually getting slower | religioso | (Italian) with devotion | replica | (Italian) repeat | risoluto | (Italian) resolutely | ritardando (rit.) | (Italian) gradually getting slower | ritenuto (riten.) | (Italian) suddenly slower, held back | ritmico | (Italian) rhythmical | rubato | (Italian) robbed time, speeding up and slowing down | scherzando | (Italian) playfully | secco | (Italian) dry, short | sempre | (Italian) always | semplice | (Italian) simple | senza | (Italian) without | serioso | (Italian) serious | simili | (Italian) the same | sino al | (Italian) up to the.. | slargando | (Italian) broadening | slentando | (Italian) getting slower | smorzando | (Italian) smother dynamic to nothing | soave | (Italian) suave, gentle | solennemente | (Italian) solemnly | sonore | (Italian) sound with full tone | sordino | (Italian) mute | sostenuto | (Italian) sustained | sotto voce | (Italian) with a barely audible sound | spiccato | (Italian) with a light bouncing motion of the bow | spiritoso | (Italian) lively, with spirit | staccato | (Italian) detached, short | stentando | (Italian) delaying, retarding | strepitoso | (Italian) noisy | stringendo | (Italian) quickening | subito | (Italian) suddenly | sul | (Italian) on the.. | suono | (Italian) sound, tone | tanto | (Italian) so much | tempo primo | (Italian) return to original time | tempo rubato | (Italian) robbed time | teneramente | (Italian) tenderly | tenuto | (Italian) held, sustained | tessitura | (Italian) average range of a vocal part | tosto | (Italian) rather | tranquillo | (Italian) tranquil, quiet, calm | tremolo | (Italian) a quick reiteration of the same tone on a string instrument | troppo | (Italian) too much | tutti | (Italian) all | un poco | (Italian) a little | vibrato | (Italian) slight change of pitch on same note | vigoroso | (Italian) vigorous, strong | vivo | (Italian) lively | German | aber | (German) but | ausdrucksvoll | (German) with expression | beruhigen | (German) to calm, to quiet | bewegt | (German) agitated | bewegter | (German) more agitated | daher | (German) from there | dämpfer | (German) mute | drängend | (German) pressing on | einleiten | (German) to lead into | erschütterung | (German) a violent shaking, deep emotion | etwas | (German) somewhat, rather | flüchtig | (German) fleeting, transient | frei | (German) free | ganz | (German) entirely, altogether | gebrochen | (German) broken | gedehnt | (German) held back | gemächlich | (German) comfortable | geschlagen | (German) struck | gesprochen | (German) spoken | gesteigert | (German) intensified | gestopft | (German) stopped note by placing the hand in the bell of the horn | gewöhnlich | (German) usual, customary | gleichmässig | (German) equal, symmetrical | halbe | (German) half | halt | (German) stop, hold |
hauptstimme | (German) most important voice in the phrase |
hauptzeitmass | (German) original tempo | heftiger | (German) more passionate, violent | hervortretend | (German) prominently | hörbar | (German) audible | immer | (German) always | klangvoll | (German) sonorous, full-sounding | klingen lassen | (German) allow to sound | kräftig | (German) strong, forceful | kurz | (German) short | lebhaft | (German) lively | leidenschaftlich | (German) passionate | mit | (German) with | nebenstimme | (German) the second most important voice in the phrase | nehmen | (German) to take | neue | (German) new | nicht | (German) not | noch | (German) still, yet | ohne | (German) without | plötzlich | (German) suddenly | ruhig | (German) calm | schleppend | (German) dragging | schon | (German) already | schwerer | (German) heavier, more difficult | schwermütig | (German) dejected, sad | sehr | (German) very | sprechstimme | (German) speaking voice | trauernd | (German) mournfully | übertönend | (German) drowning out | unterbrechung | (German) interruption, suspension | verhalten | (German) restrained, held back | verklingen lassen | (German) let die away | verzweiflungsvoll | (German) full of despair | vorwärts | (German) forward, onward | weg | (German) away, beyond | wieder | (German) again | wie oben | (German) as above, as before | zart | (German) tenderly, delicately | ziemlich | (German) suitable, fitting | zurückhaltend | (German) slowing in speed | zurückkehrend zum | (German) return to.. | French | bien | (French) very, well | come | (French) like | détaché | (French) detached | doux | (French) soft, light | echoton | (French) with an echo | éclatant | (French) sparkling, brilliant | encore | (French) again | en dehors | (French) outside, emphasized | en fusée | (French) dissolving in | et | (French) and | fois | (French) times, as in number of | laissez vibrer | (French) let vibrate | lié | (French) tied | main | (French) hand (droite right; gauche left) | marqué | (French) marked, with emphasis | pause | (French) pause, rest | peu | (French) little | plus | (French) more | sans | (French) without | seulement | (French) only | sombre | (French) somber, dark | son | (French) sound | sourdine | (French) mute | soutenu | (French) held, sustained | sur | (French) over, on | très | (French) very | tristement | (French) sadly | unison (unis.) | (French) same pitches played by several instruments |

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