Table of Tempo Markings ::  We mentioned in lesson 2 that musical notation is an example of proportional notation. The relationship between notes and rests is formalised but the duration or time value of any particular note is unquantified. Until the invention of a mechanical device called the metronome, the performance speed of a piece of music was indicated in three possible ways: through the use of tempo marks, most commonly in Italian;by
reference to particular dance forms whose general tempi would have been
part of the common experience of musicians of the time;by the way the music was written down, in particular, the choice of note for the beat and/or the time signature employed.The
most common tempo related marks are listed below with, in some cases,
suggestions as to the number of beat per minute equivalent to those
markings. Tempo Markings | Definition | Beats per minute |
Italian |
setting the tempo |
grave | very slow and solemn | 40 bpm or slower |
larghissimo | extremely slow | 40 bpm or slower |
lentissimo | extremely slow, but not as slow as larghissimo | |
adagissimo | extremely slow, but slower than largo | |
largo | broad, very slow and dignified | 42-66 bpm |
larghetto | less slow than largo | |
largamente | broadly | |
adagio | slow, but not as slow as largo | 58-97 bpm |
adagietto | slow, but less slow than adagio | |
lento | slow | 52-108 bpm |
lentamente | slowly | |
andantino | a little slower than andante but sometimes a little faster than adagio | | andante | moving along - walking pace | 56-88 bpm | con moto | with movement, or a certain quickness | | moderato | moderate speed | 66-126 bpm | allegretto | pretty lively | | vivace | quick and lively | | allegro | quick, lively and bright | 84-144 bpm |
allegramente | quicker | |
presto | very quick | 100-152 bpm |
allegrissimo | very quick, between presto and vivacissimo | |
vivacissimo | very quick, faster than vivace | |
prestissimo | very quick - as quickly as possible | |
rapido | rapid | | veloce | with velocity, speedily | |
changing the tempo |
doppio movimento | twice as fast | |
accelerando, accel. | getting steadily faster | |
stringendo | getting faster | |
affrettando | to increase speed gradually | |
incalzando | to increase speed gradually | |
meno mosso | slower | |
ritardando, rit., ritard. | getting gradually slower | |
rallentando, rall. | getting gradually slower | |
tardando | getting gradually slower | |
slentando | getting gradually slower | |
slendendo | slowing down | |
strascinando | getting gradually slower | |
allargando, allarg. | getting slower, and maybe also louder | |
calando | getting slower as well as softer | |
deficiendo | getting slower as well as softer | |
mancando | getting slower as well as softer | |
morendo | getting slower as well as softer | |
sminuendo | getting slower as well as softer | |
smorzando | getting slower as well as softer | |
ritenuto, rit., riten. | holding back tempo - sometimes suddenly taking a slower tempo | |
più mosso | take the new section at a faster steady pace than the preceding section | |
più moto | take the new section at a faster steady pace than the preceding section | |
veloce | take the new section at a faster steady pace than the preceding section | |
ritenuto | take the new section at a slower steady pace than the preceding section | |
meno mosso | take the new section at a slower steady pace than the preceding section | |
meno moto | take the new section at a slower steady pace than the preceding section | |
a tempo | returning to a previous tempo | | tempo primo | returning to tempo at beginning | | lunga pausa | a long pause | |
l'istesso tempo | the same tempo but where the meter changes, for example from 2/2 to 6/4 | |
rubato | a direction related to rhythmic shape rather
than tempo - the overall tempo remains unchanged but the rhythmic
division within one or more bars is freer than the notes as they are
notated | |
German | belebt | animated | | breit | broad | | breiter | broader | | geschwinder | more rapid, swift | | grossem | large, big | | klagend | lamenting | | langsam | slow | | langsamer | slower | | mässig | moderate | | rasch | quick | | schnell | fast | | schneller | faster | | French | animé | animated | | grande | large, great | | grave | slow, solemn, deep slow | | gravement | gravely, solemnly | | lent | slow | | vif | lively | | vite | fast | |
Georg Muffat (1653-1704), though of French birth and of Scottish
ancestry, considered himself a German and was instrumental in bringing
the musical styles of the French and Italian courts into
German-speaking countries. As a boy he studied with Lully and others in
Paris and so was familiar with the musical style of les Vingt-quatre violins du Roi. With regard to tempo, Muffat, writing in his Auserlesene Instrumentalmusik (pub. 1701), describes the Italian manner which he favours, "in which passages marked with the words Adagio, Grave, Largo, etc. are taken much more slowly than our [German] musicians would play [...]. However, those marked Allegro, Vivace, Presto, Piú Presto, and Prestissimo are taken much livelier and faster."
Pasquini, an Italian violinist/composer who worked in England in
about 1740-50, gave suggested tempi for the performance of Corelli's
Concerto da chiesa in G minor fatto per la notte di Natale Op.
6 No. 8, which have come down to us through a publication of 1785 by
the English publisher R. Bremner. These, too, offer guidance on the
association between Italian markings and metronome marks for Italian
music written in the first half of the eighteenth century. Tempo Markings | Time Signature | Beats per minute | grave | C, common time, or alla breve | 60 bpm | Largo - Pastorale | 12/8 | 70-80 bpm | Adagio | C, common time | 60 bpm | Allegro | C, common time | 110-115 bpm | Allegro | C, common time | 150-160 bpm | Allegro | alla breve | 120 bpm | Vivace | 3/4 | 50-55 bpm |
While it might seem useful to ascribe a particular metronome mark to each tempo mark, you will notice that there is a wide variation associated with each mark and as Andantino
demonstrates, not a little confusion. In general, these markings should
be used carefully. Very often, the style of the piece of music or the
skill of the musician, dictates the range of tempi within which a
performance can be convincing and it is this, the 'conviction of the
performance' which should be the judge, not rigorous attention to
particular tempo markings, which are guides more to 'mood' than to
'speed'. Charles Rosen has written an illuminating article on the tempo sign Andante. We quote from it below.
Andante over the years was the most malleable, the most changeable
of musical directions. It might almost seem to have meant at different
times all things to all men. Literally it signified simply "going". For
a while, in the eighteenth century, it meant "play straightforwardly" -
that is, the piece was to be played cleanly in very strict time, and
without any of the fancy French stylistic manner of dotted rhythms (the
French liked to play the rhythms unevenly, with a pronounced lilt).
Handel's andantes in the 1730s and 1740s seem to have been attached
most often to pieces which needed a relatively brisk tempo. When he
wanted a slower andante, he wrote "Andante larghetto." When he wished
the andante faster than his usual relatively quick interpretation of
the term, he even noted "Andante allegro" (for example, in Medoro's
aria, Vorrei poetrii amar, at the opening of the third act of Orlando). For Handel andante meant moving forward with a sense of pace and no lingering. Mozart's
employment of Andante was more moderate than Handel's but it was faster
than is sometimes thought today. When his sister mentioned an Adagio in
one of his concertos, he corrected her firmly, remarking that all of
his recent concertos had andantes, not adagios (for a while in the
middle of the eighteenth century, adagio meant not only "slow," but was
an invitation to the performer to add many ornaments). Andante was a
favorite designation of Mozart, used many hundreds of times. Musically,
things slowed down in the nineteenth century. Symphonies and operas and
quartets became longer; even longer phrases became the rule. Andante,
too, slowed, and the tempo mark now signified something more
ruminative, more reflective. The real puzzle - and this started in the
late eighteenth century - is what is meant by molto andante (very
andante) or più andante (more andante): was "more andante" faster or
slower than "andante"? Beethoven was not sure and consulted others.
Finally he decided that more andante was faster, but then he had to
write out an explanation. He was explicit in the variation finale of
the Sonata in E Major Op. 109 : the fourth variation is marked "a
little but less andante, that is, a little bit more adagio than the
theme". In my experience, it is one of the most difficult tempos
to set; even in the nineteenth century it implies that the listener
should not feel the tempo was either fast or slow, but nevertheless
with a pace that does not have the bland and dawdling impression of a
moderato. Andante generally demands that the music look forward, and
move without stumbling or impediment. It neither lingers nor hurries. Andante is basically a tempo today which signifies a free movement, continuously progressive, unconstrained and unforced.
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Fermata, Fetura & Caesura ::  The fermata (also called hold or bird's eye) is a semicircle containing a dot which may lie above or below a note or rest or over a barline.

there are three uses for the fermata: |
to extend the duration of a note | a fermata placed over
a note (regardless of note duration) signifies that the performer is to
extend the duration of that note by an amount left to the player's or
conductor's discretion |
to extend the duration of a rest | a fermata placed over
a rest (regardless of duration) signifies that the performer is to
extend the duration of that rest by an amount left to the player's or
conductor's discretion |
to insert a silence | a fermata placed over a barline
signifies that the performer ceases to perform for a period left to the
player's or conductor's discretion |
Sometimes the fermata may be followed by a pair of oblique lines, ||, lying through the top line of the staff. This is called a fetura or caesura although some conductors may also call them tramlines, railroad tracks or a cut-off. The sign means that there is a silent pause in the onward flow of the musical line. We illustrate the sign below.  If the passage immediately following a fetura is to be played by a single instrument in free tempo, then it will be marked with the words Colla voce (It.: with the voice) or Colla parte
(It.: with the part) meaning that the accompanying instruments should
take their tempo from the solo voice or part. A horizontal line will
extend above the whole passage to be treated thus. In poetry, a caesura is a pause somewhere in the middle of a verse often marked with two vertical lines ||. Some lines of poetry have strong (easily recognizable) caesurae, which usually coincide with punctuation, while others have weak ones. Pope was able to keep his heroic couplets interesting by varying the position of the caesurae, as here: Alas how changed! || What sudden horrors rise! A naked lover || bound and bleeding lies! Where, where was Eloise? || her voice, her hand, Her poniard, || had opposed the dire command.
Dance Tempi ::
If one wants to rely on a dance name to indicate tempo, you must
remember that the same dance could have have been danced at different
tempi at different times in history. In addition there is good evidence
that when accompanying dancers the tempo should be strict and
unvarying.
The dancing master, Kellom Tomlinson, in 'The Art of
Dancing' explained by reading and figures; whereby the manner of
performing the steps is made easy by a new and familiar method: being
the original work, first designed in the year 1724 ... , tells us:
"… it may perhaps be objected and at first View with great Show of Reason, that the Time in Dancing is various and liable to be changed to faster or slower, according to the Performer's Fancy ...
This caused the Ancients to say, the Gods gave a Genius to Music and Dancing; and it is of that Importance in the latter as to render it impossible to please without Keeping Time, nor is it to be called Dancing without it."
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Purely instrumental dance pieces generally have faster tempi than if
they were to be used to accompany dancing although there are cases
where the instrumental version is actually slower than when danced.
Tempi may alter at appropriate moments during the performance, for
example, in the last two bars there might be a slight retard. We give
below general guidance to the character of the more popular early dance
forms.
Dance Name | Expected Speed |
Alman | a heavy dance in 1676 England: 'ayrey and Lively' J.
S. Bach's time: the Allemande no longer reflected a particular dance
form. In a study of allemandes of this period, neither clear
choreographic roots nor distinguishable recurring rhythmic patterns
have been found; nor do any choreographies survive |
Bouree | Quantz (eighteenth century): merry | Bransle | many different tempi, sometimes quick, sometimes slower | Chaconne | Quantz (eighteenth century): played with majesty | Chichona | in 1679 England: a Grave kind of Humour |
Coranto Courante | in 1679 England: quick, 'full of Sprightfulness, and Vigour, Lively, Brisk and Cheerful' Quantz (eighteenth century): played with majesty Pierre
Rameau (1725): it is a "very solemn dance with a nobler style and
grander manner than the others, is very varied in its figures, and has
dignified and distinguished movements" |
Corrente | Italian corrente (early
eighteenth century): a virtuoso piece for violin or keyboard. It
usually consists continuous elaboration in quavers (eighth notes) or
semiquavers (sixteenth notes) over a bass in fast triple meter, with
simple textures, slow harmonic rhythm, and phrases of varying length.
Techniques of elaboration include arpeggiation, sequential repetition,
two melodic parts combined into a single line, figures resembling an
Alberti bass, and passage-work covering several octaves |
Galliard | in the 16th century it was lively and stirring in 1676 England: it was grave and sober the Italian Galliard is sometimes called a salterello | Gavotte | Quantz (eighteenth century): more moderate than a Bouree |
Gigue | Quantz (eighteenth century): quick and merry, lightly
the most distinctive feature of this characteristically French dance is
its graceful lilt, produced by the almost constant use of the sautillant figure: [dotted quaver (dotted eighth note), semiquaver (sixteenth note), quaver (eighth note)] |
Giga | the Giga is, by the Baroque period, no longer a dance form but an instrumental piece |
Ground | in 1679 England: 'Slow Notes, very Grave and Stately' |
Loure | in moderate 6/4 time and with dotted rhythms leaning heavily on the strong beats |
Menuet | in 1703 France: very merry dance originating from Poitou in 1750 France: it is noble and elegant, moderate rather than fast | Marche | Quantz (eighteenth century): played seriously | Passacaille, Passacaglia | see Quantz (eighteenth century): similar to a Chaconne but a little quicker | Pavanne | in 1507 London: a 'staide musicke' in 1676 England: grave and sober | Rigaudon | Quantz (eighteenth century): merry | Sarabande | in 1679 England: Toyish, and Light at the same time in France it was slow and pathetic the sarabands of Handel and Bach are generally slow movements | Tambourin | Quantz (eighteenth century): a little faster than a Bouree | Tattle de Moy | in 1679 England: like a [quicker] Saraband only 'It has more of Conceit in It .. and Humour' |
Early dance is a very specialist field and we recommend two pioneering books for further reference: Mabel Dolmetsch, Dances of England and France from 1450 to 1600 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul [1949])Mabel Dolmetsch, Dances of Spain and Italy from 1400 to 1600 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul [1954])
Reference:
Baroque Dance and the Bach Cello Suites by Tim Janof from which we have drawn some of the information in the table above
Dance History Archives - an excellent resource about the history and character of dance
Tempo through Notation ::  In his Interpretation of Music of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries, Arnold Dolmetsch wrote: The
proper tempo of a piece of music can usually be discovered by an
intelligent musician, if he is in sympathy with its style, and
possesses sufficient knowledge of the instrument for which it is
written. But here agin we must guard against prejudices and so-called
tradition, for many a musician who would be sensitive enough to the
tempo of modern music, will not hesitate at committing the most glaring
absurdity when old music is concerned. |
Dolmetsch
was writing early in the twentieth century when there was little
knowledge about early music, early dance or of the characteristics of
the instruments on which it might have been played. Even today almost a
hundred years later, many of us have never danced a Pavan or Polka and
a piece of music bearing such a title would have us none the wiser as
to the way it was danced nor how it might be performed. A source
of some confusion in the matter of tempo is the habit some modern
editors have of replacing all the notes in a work with notes half their
time value. Where the principal beat might originally
have been a minim, it is now rewritten as a crotchet. This
'modernisation' of notation makes it impossible to use the fact that in
the sixteenth century 'white music', that filled with breves,
semibreves and minims, was generally played much faster than 'black'
music, that filled with crotchets, quavers and semiquavers. There is good evidence from tutors published in the early eighteenth century that time signatures
could indicate tempi. Some are given in the table below. The two
sources are 'The Compleat Flute Master' (London c.1700) and 'The
Compleat Tutor for the Violin by Mr. Dean' (London, 1707). time signature | expected speed (Flute Master - c.1700) | expected speed (Violin Master - 1707) |  | very slow motion | very solid or slow movement |  | somewhat faster | quicker |  | brisk and light Ayres | as quick again as the first, and are called 'retorted time' occasionally shown with a large number two crossed with a vertical line |
some writers maintained that, reading from top to bottom, the three signs above indicated exact proportions of (4:2:1) |
 | grave movement | much quicker |  | fast, for jiggs, paspies, etc. | |  | | much quicker |
Here
again, considering only two methods published within a few years of
each other, there is a certain amount of disagreement and it is a wise
musician that uses this information carefully. Certainly, what evidence
it provides can only be applied very narrowly to music performed in
London at the beginning of the eighteenth century.
Metronome Marks ::  Ascribing
accurate tempi to music was something many musicians sought. In his
"Harmonie Universelle" published in 1636, Mersenne gives the time value
of a 'Minim' as that of a beat of the heart. The first metronome
was invented by Étienne Loulié in 1696. His device was rather tall; 2
metres high (almost 7 feet). A number of mechanical improvements lead
to the modern (spring-operated) portable metronome. These were carried
out by Ditrich Nikolaus Winkel (1780-1826) and Johann Nepomuk Maelzel
(1772-1838). As they worked independently there was some dispute as to
had actually arrived first at the various technical improvements. In
the end the better business-man, Maelzel, made the metronome available
to a larger public and, as a result, it is his name that figures in the
famous tempo sign: MM=120. MM is short for 'Maelzel's Metronome'.
Composers who insisted on their music being performed at exactly the
right tempo welcomed the metronome because now they could give an exact
number of beats per minute (bpm). They supplied recommended metronome
markings above the published music so that everybody knew what they
wanted. Unfortunately, we know that many of the early metronomes
were inferior and did not always run reliabily. In other cases, the
editors or publishers added their own marks, without any regard to the
opinion of the composer. These mechanical devices have now been
superceded by solid state electronic devices that are more reliable and
much cheaper to manufacture. Metronome marks should be treated just
like any other tempo marking - as a guide, to be ignored if the result
is impractical or unmusical. References:
A Short History of MetronomesDownload Your Own Metronome

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